Passive, Aggressive, Assertive
Reviewed By
Donna Bottomley - Psychotherapist, MBABCP accredited, 10+ years in CBT and EMDR
This journal helps you reflect on your communication habits and empowers you to express yourself in ways that strengthen relationships and build confidence.
References
Gál, Z. et al. (2025) – The Relationship Between Social Problem-Solving and Passive-Aggressive Behavior Among Adolescents. - This study uses the Passive Aggression Scale (PAS) to empirically investigate passive-aggressive behavior and its associations with social problem-solving patterns in young people. Epstein, N. (1980) – Social Consequences of Assertion, Aggression, Passive-Aggression, and Submission. - Classic research comparing outcomes (compliance, anger, sympathy) in response to different communication request styles (including assertive, aggressive, and passive-aggressive modes), often cited in interpersonal communication literature. Marici, M. (2024) – The Impact of Coercive and Assertive Communication Styles on Emotional and Social Outcomes. - Experimental study highlighting differences in outcomes for assertive vs. coercive (aggressive) communication, positioning assertive communication in contrast to more hostile styles in social interaction research.